Aerial view of the Carbajal Valley in the Southern Andes, located in Tierra del Fuego, Argentina
c. 10 Million BCE: The Andes – A Geological Marvel of Plate Collision

The Andes, formed by the collision of the Nazca plate with the South American plate, are a major volcanic zone extending through several South American countries and part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, characterized [...]

A NASA satellite view of the Hawaiian Island chain, showing the Big Island of Hawaii in the southeast extending to Kauai and tiny Ni’ihau in the northwest, with a chain of smaller islands and atolls above sea level continuing over 620 miles (1000 km) northwest
c. 28 Million BCE: The Formation of the Hawaiian Islands – A Hotspot Story

The Hawaiian Islands' formation is linked to a stationary hotspot beneath the moving Pacific plate, a theory first proposed by John Tuzo Wilson in 1963. The islands' age progression from the youngest in the southeast [...]

An aerial view of the Cascade volcanic peaks in Oregon, with the Three Sisters in the foreground, and Mts. Washington, Jefferson, Hood, and Adams extending northward
c. 30-10 Million BCE: The Cascade Volcanoes – A Tectonic Phenomenon

The Cascade Volcanoes in the Pacific Northwest are formed by the subduction of oceanic plates beneath the North American continental plate, resulting in a series of major volcanic peaks and vents along the Cascade volcanic [...]

A close-up view of a leaf, the main location where photosynthesis occurs in plants
c. 30-20 Million BCE: Evolution of Advanced C4 Photosynthesis in Plants

Advanced C4 photosynthesis, an evolutionary adaptation in plants, emerged 30-20 million years ago in response to decreasing atmospheric CO2 levels, enabling more efficient CO2 fixation, especially in hot, dry environments, and playing a crucial role [...]

An illustrative depiction showing the Earth's crust being split by plate tectonics in the East African Rift Zone, with the Horn of Africa and Somalia on the right, and the Nile River on the left, predicting the formation of a new ocean basin that will divide Africa into two plates in about 10 million years
c. 30 Million BCE: The East African Rift Zone – Earth’s Dynamic Crust

The East African Rift Zone, a result of continental rifting and mantle plume activity, is actively splitting the African continent, with predictions of forming two new plates and a new ocean basin in about 10 [...]

A NASA satellite composite image showing Antarctica centered on the South Pole, with the continent covered in ice, snow, and glaciers, and sea ice encompassing major bays and inlets
c. 35 Million BCE: Antarctica’s Dynamic Geological History

Antarctica, often perceived as a remote icy land, has undergone significant changes over time. Originally part of Gondwana and later Pangea, it separated from Australia around 35 million years ago, leading to the formation of [...]

Visitors at the Natural History Museum in London observe the 47-million-year-old skeleton of Darwinius masillae, commonly known as 'Ida,' a fossil primate about the size of a small cat with a long tail.
c. 60 Million BCE: The Evolution and Diversity of Primates

Primates, evolving behavioral strategies to survive in a predator-dominated world, are characterized by hands, hand-like feet, and forward-facing eyes. Ranging from lemurs to gorillas, their adaptations for tree-dwelling have led to enhanced vision and intelligence, [...]

An artist’s depiction of a large asteroid striking Earth, representing the end of the Cretaceous and the start of the Paleogene period in geologic history, about 65 million years ago
c. 65 Million BCE: The Asteroid Impact and the Demise of the Dinosaurs

The extinction of dinosaurs 65 million years ago, marking the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, is attributed to a large asteroid impact, evidenced by global iridium deposits. This event led to dramatic climatic changes and the demise of [...]

A summertime view of the geologically young and rugged Italian Alps, towering above stunning high mountain lakes
c. 65 Million BCE: The Formation of the Majestic Alps

The Alps were formed from the collision of the African and Eurasian plates following the breakup of Pangea, leading to the uplift of sedimentary deposits from the Tethys Sea and creating complex geological structures, including [...]

A scenic pastoral landscape in the Western Ghats Mountains of southern India, showcasing the layered volcanic hills of the Deccan Traps
c. 66 Million BCE: The Deccan Traps – A Volcanic Phenomenon

The Deccan Traps, an example of massive volcanic activity, dramatically altered Earth's landscape and climate, potentially contributing to the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous period, showcasing the interplay of gradual and catastrophic [...]