A drawing from around 1770 depicting Polynesian double canoes called "tipaerua," inspired by encounters documented during the South Pacific expeditions led by British explorer Captain James Cook.
c. 700-1200: Tracing the Polynesian Diaspora

The Polynesian diaspora, spanning 5,000 years, represents one of human history's most extensive and skilled migrations, as people from Southeast Asia settled across the South Pacific, creating a rich tapestry of cultures and communities

Russian artist Karl Briullov's 1833 painting, "The Last Day of Pompeii," portrays the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, capturing both the geological and human tragedies caused by the massive ash eruption.
79: The Tragic Eruption of Vesuvius and Its Impact on Pompeii

The catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD led to the destruction and burial of Pompeii and Herculaneum under ash, exemplifying the peril of living near active volcanoes and the interplay between human settlements [...]

A 1635 painting by artist Bernardo Strozzi depicting Eratosthenes (left) instructing a student on how to calculate the Earth's size based on shadow lengths cast at different locations simultaneously.
c. 250 BCE: Eratosthenes’ Measurement of the Earth’s Circumference

Eratosthenes, known as the father of geography, accurately calculated the Earth's circumference over 2,200 years ago using simple observations of shadows and distances, a testament to the power of early scientific inquiry

A reproduction of a portion of Aristarchus's original third-century BCE calculations, showing the relative sizes of the Sun, Earth, and Moon, which supported his revolutionary idea of a heliocentric universe.
c. 280 BCE: Aristarchus and the Concept of a Heliocentric Universe

Aristarchus, a Greek astronomer, challenged ancient geocentric beliefs by proposing a heliocentric universe, a revolutionary concept that wasn't widely accepted until centuries later with the works of Copernicus and Kepler

A 19th-century engraving illustrating an artist's depiction of a hall in the Great Library of Alexandria in ancient Egypt.
c. 300 BCE: The Great Library of Alexandria – A Repository of Ancient Wisdom

The Great Library of Alexandria, established around 300 BCE, symbolized the zenith of ancient knowledge collection, aiming to house all global scholarly content. Despite its destruction, it remains a symbol of historical intellectual pursuit

An impressive, hand-sized cluster of quartz crystals from Tibet.
c. 300 BCE: Quartz – A Versatile and Abundant Mineral

Quartz, the second most abundant mineral in the Earth's crust, is known for its chemical resilience and diverse forms. Used historically and industrially, it plays a crucial role in various applications, from jewelry to electronics

Local residents strolling along the "Avenue of the Baobab Trees" near Morondava, Madagascar.
c. 500 BCE: The Human Settlement of Madagascar

Madagascar, the fourth-largest island globally, was one of the last significant landmasses settled by humans, around 2,500 years ago. Its isolation since the breakup of Pangea fostered unique biodiversity, now threatened by human activities

Above: Evidence for the Earth's round shape is the curved shadow it casts on the Moon during a lunar eclipse, as seen in this 2008 observation from Greece. Main image: An engraving of the sixth-century BCE Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras, one of the early proponents of the idea that the Earth is a spherical object.
c. 500 BCE: Pythagoras and the Spherical Earth

The concept of a spherical Earth, now a fundamental understanding, was popularized by Pythagoras, the 6th-century BCE Greek philosopher. His indirect arguments, from observing lunar eclipses to the changing positions of constellations, laid the groundwork [...]

Top: A relatively modern map of the known world circa 1730, created by Dutch engraver Daniël Stopendaal. Bottom: A clay tablet featuring one of the earliest world maps, originating from sixth-century BCE Babylonia.
c. 600 BCE: The Evolution of World Mapping – From Ancient to Modern Times

Beginning over 4,500 years ago for local and regional trade, the art of mapmaking evolved with human curiosity and technological advancements. From the Babylonians' circular world maps to the Greeks' spherical conceptions, culminating in today's [...]

A remarkably preserved ancient Roman aqueduct in Segovia, Spain, believed to date from the late 1st to early 2nd centuries CE
c. 800 BCE: Aqueducts – Engineering Marvels of Ancient Civilizations

Aqueducts, originating as early as 4,000 years ago, were monumental engineering feats that enabled ancient civilizations, including the Assyrians and Romans, to transport water across challenging terrains, sustaining large urban populations and fueling sophisticated lifestyles