Main image: Johannes Kepler's efforts to discover divine perfection in the orbits of the known planets by attempting to align them with the shapes of the so-called perfect solids, as depicted in his book "Mysterium Cosmographicum" (1596). Inset: A 1610 portrait of Kepler by an unknown artist.
1619: Kepler’s Revolutionary Laws of Planetary Motion

Johannes Kepler, a Renaissance-era German mathematician and astronomer, transformed the field of astronomy with his three laws of planetary motion. Kepler's work in the early 17th century, building on observations from Tycho Brahe and Galileo, [...]

The Huaynaputina volcanic crater in southern Peru, marking the remnants of the most significant historical volcanic eruption in South America, albeit relatively unremarkable today.
1600: The Devastating Huaynaputina Eruption

The Huaynaputina volcano in southern Peru witnessed a catastrophic eruption in February 1600, one of the Andes' most severe volcanic events. Preceded by earthquakes and steam eruptions, its explosive Plinian plume significantly impacted the global [...]

A portion of a bronze relief created by Italian sculptor Ettore Ferrari (1845–1929) depicting the trial of Giordano Bruno by the Roman Inquisition in 1600.
1600: Giordano Bruno – Visionary of a Universe Beyond Earth

Giordano Bruno, an Italian philosopher and Dominican friar, was an early advocate of Copernican heliocentrism in the sixteenth century. His radical ideas extended beyond Copernicus, proposing an infinite universe with countless inhabited planets. Despite being [...]

A NASA satellite topographic image of the Amazon River, showcasing its numerous branches and tributaries.
1541: The Mighty Amazon River – Earth’s Largest Waterway

The Amazon River, either the longest or second-longest river globally, is unparalleled in its water discharge, contributing nearly 20% of the freshwater flowing into the world's oceans. Originating from diverse tributaries across South America, it's [...]

A 1589 map of the Pacific Ocean showing Ferdinand Magellan's ship Victoria entering the South Pacific in 1520.
1519: Ferdinand Magellan’s Historic Voyage – The First Circumnavigation

Ferdinand Magellan's expedition (1519-1522) marked a pivotal moment in maritime history, achieving the first circumnavigation of the globe. Despite the high cost in human lives, including Magellan's own, this voyage demonstrated the vast expanse of [...]

A sketch from around 1480 by Leonardo da Vinci, illustrating a concept for a lightweight, portable parabolic swing bridge intended for military applications.
c. 1500: Leonardo da Vinci and the Evolution of Civil Engineering

Civil engineering, a field pivotal to societal development, was exemplified by Leonardo da Vinci, a Renaissance polymath. His work spanned military and civilian projects, including city defense, weapon design, and bridge construction. Civil engineering has [...]

Spanish artist Francisco de Goya's painting "The Snowstorm" was created in the late 1780s during a period of colder-than-average temperatures spanning several centuries, often referred to as the Little Ice Age.
c. 1500: Understanding The Little Ice Age

The Little Ice Age, spanning from the 14th to 19th centuries, marked a period of cooler temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere. Notable for its significant climatic shifts, it led to expanded glaciation, longer winters, and [...]

A contemporary artist's depiction of the Iroquois creation myth, where the world is believed to have originated on the back of a giant sea turtle.
c. 1400: Exploring Native American Creation Myths

Native American creation stories, passed down orally, offer profound insights into the cosmological beliefs of various tribes. These narratives often feature elements of the natural world and spiritual entities, reflecting a deep reverence for nature. [...]

A section of the Great Wall of China, located near Jinshanling, northeast of Beijing.
c. 1370-1640: The Great Wall of China – A Monumental Feat of Engineering

Spanning over 5,500 miles, the Great Wall of China represents an extraordinary example of ancient architectural ingenuity. Originating from the 7th century BCE, it was extensively rebuilt during the Ming Dynasty. This colossal structure, combining [...]

A section from page 49 of the Dresden Codex, one of the three surviving books from the Maya civilization, illustrating a segment of the cycle related to the appearances and disappearances of Venus and the Moon goddess Ixchel.
c. 1000: Unveiling Mayan Astronomy – Insights from the Dresden Codex

The Dresden Codex, a surviving document from the Mayan civilization, reveals their advanced astronomical knowledge, rivaling that of early Greek and Arabic scholars. It includes detailed tables for tracking celestial bodies, predicting eclipses, and aligning [...]