Main image: A busy subway station in Brazil in 2017. Inset: An engraved portrait of Thomas Robert Malthus from 1834.
1798: Understanding Population Growth – The Malthusian Perspective

Since the last glacial period, human population growth has been significantly influenced by agricultural and technological advancements. Thomas Robert Malthus's theory highlights the potential conflict between population growth and food supply. As the world population [...]

A 14-ounce (408-gram) ordinary chondrite meteorite discovered in 2008 on the rocky terrain of the Rub 'al-Khali desert near Ash-Sharqı¯yah, Saudi Arabia. The black exterior is a thin fusion crust created as the rock rapidly passed through Earth's atmosphere.
1794: Meteorites: Unveiling the Mysteries of Space Rocks

Initially dismissed as absurd, the idea that rocks can fall from space was proven by Ernst Chladni and Jean-Baptiste Biot in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, founding the field of meteoritics. Today, over [...]

A 1964 photograph showing the Zarchin desalination plant on the Red Sea in Eilat, Israel.
1791: Desalination – The Solution to Freshwater Scarcity

Desalination, the process of removing salt from seawater, is a key solution to the global freshwater shortage. With ancient roots and modern technological advances, particularly in reverse osmosis, this practice is becoming more sustainable and [...]

Green sand, composed of olivine mineral grains, found on a volcanic beach on the island of Hawaii.
1789: Olivine – The Earth’s Mantle’s Gem

Olivine, an abundant magnesium-iron silicate in the Earth's mantle, is key to understanding planetary structures. Its polymorphism and occurrence in volcanic areas, as well as in lunar, Martian, and meteoritic rocks, make it integral to [...]

Main image: Layered rocks at Siccar Point, Scotland, showcasing one of the earliest-recognized unconformities in the geological record. Inset: A sketch from a 1920 geology textbook depicting Scottish geologist James Hutton.
1788: James Hutton’s Discovery of Unconformities

James Hutton revolutionized geology with his observation of angular unconformities in rock layers, leading to the understanding of "deep time" and laying the foundation for modern geological principles

Main image: A 1776 portrait of Captain James Cook by British artist Nathaniel Dance-Holland. Inset: A time-lapse image taken by NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory satellite, capturing the transit of Venus on June 5, 2012.
1769: Captain Cook’s Historic Voyage – Observing the Transit of Venus

Captain James Cook's voyage on HMS Endeavour in 1769 marked a turning point in exploration, combining scientific pursuit with maritime exploration. Tasked by the British Royal Society, Cook observed the rare transit of Venus from [...]

A sample of granite from Victoria, Australia, featuring prominent alkali and plagioclase feldspar minerals (in pinkish-red and gray colors, respectively), along with quartz (shiny) and black mica.
1747: Feldspar – The Backbone of Continental Crust

Feldspar, constituting a major part of the Earth's continental crust, is a framework silicate mineral rich in silicon, oxygen, and elements like calcium, potassium, and sodium. First named by Johan Gottschalk Wallerius in 1747, feldspar's [...]

A vintage engraving of Newton from 1856
1687: Isaac Newton and the Law of Gravity

Isaac Newton's groundbreaking work in physics, culminating in his Law of Universal Gravity, transformed our understanding of the universe. His Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, laid the foundation for classical mechanics and upheld the heliocentric [...]

The Moon, Earth, and Sun are gravitationally connected, a concept developed by Sir Isaac Newton. They exert powerful gravitational forces on each other based on their masses and the inverse square of their distances. These gravitational interactions are manifested as tides in Earth's fluid oceans.
1686: Isaac Newton and the Science of Tides

Isaac Newton's groundbreaking work in the 17th century established the scientific understanding of tides as a result of gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and Sun on Earth's oceans. This understanding revolutionized our knowledge of [...]

Main image: Impressive folded and layered rock formations in the Hajar Mountains, Oman. Inset: Cover of "Dissertationis Prodromus" (1669) by Nicolas Steno.
1669: Nicolas Steno – The Father of Stratigraphy

Nicolas Steno, initially trained in anatomy, revolutionized geology by establishing foundational principles of stratigraphy. His work in the 17th century, recognizing fossils embedded in rocks and formulating principles like the Law of Superposition and Principle [...]